Summary

This paper introduces a transitional vulnerability framework for rethinking Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) in the context of escalating climate, ecological, and social crises. Moving beyond the technocratic view of NBS as universally beneficial, it frames transitions as layered, non-linear, and power-laden processes shaped by historical injustices, governance structures, and entangled human–nature relationships. The framework identifies four interlinked layers—structural and environmental conditions, biophysical–ecological and socio-institutional dynamics, negotiated processes of change, and contingent futures—emphasising that NBS outcomes can range from inclusive adaptation to exclusion and elite capture. By recognising multiple timelines, feedback loops, and the contested nature of transformation, it calls for reflexive, participatory, and adaptive approaches that acknowledge inequality, embrace conflict, and design NBS with humility and justice at their core.